US Foreign Policy and Nuclear Proliferation Research Paper

US Foreign Policy and Nuclear Proliferation - Research Paper Example An examination of the US foreign policy in modern times highlights the significant role of nuclear weapons. The reason is that nuclear weapons constitute an important part in the achievement of the United States foreign policy and defense policy goals. There are two arguments that rationalize this. First, is that nuclear weapons are seen as valuable instruments of statecraft and the foundation of global stability by serving as a deterrent to a wide range of threats. Secondly, the American Cold War policy still has its imprint on modern foreign policy particularly in regard to the emphasis on the importance of being ready to deliver a quick and massive attack against opposing nuclear forces. According to a Harvard Nuclear Study Group: [The United States] wants from them many of the same things it wants from its conventional military forces. The basic goal is to protect the security of the United States and its allies from attack or coercion by a hostile power. Nuclear weapons should serve that primary purpose. (Carnesale & the Harvard Nuclear Security Group 134) During the Cold War nuclear weapons is at the center of the American security strategies. The US, as part of this strategy, developed large, diverse and dispersed nuclear forces that were maintained at high alert levels. The officially stated rationales for these forces were to deter the Soviet Union from attacking the United States and its allies with either conventional or nuclear weapons. The disintegration of the Soviet Union after the Cold War changed the nuclear policy due to three fundamental factors: 1) the likelihood of all-out war between the United States and Russia has drastically diminished; 2) the increase in regional conflicts no longer calls for nuclear deterrence; and, 3) the conventional forces are sufficient to deal with potential adversaries. (National Academy of Sciences 16-18) And

The history of Restorative Justice in the UK Essay

The history of Restorative Justice in the UK - Essay Example Restorative justice practice consists of â€Å"direct and indirect mediation, family group conferences, healing/sentencing circles and community restorative boards† (Walgrave and Bazemore 1991; Crawford and Newburn, 2003; Gavrielides, 2007 cited in Gavrielides, 2011, p.2). The term â€Å"restorative justice† was coined in modern justice literature and practice during the 1970s (Yantzi, 1998).Van Ness and Strong (1997, p.24) assert that Albert Eglash introduced the term in his 1977 article, but later in (Van Ness and Strong, 2010) he referred to the research of Skelton (2005) who argues that 1977 chapter was reprinted from an article that Eglash published during 1958-59(cited in Gavrielides, 2011, p.2). Raymond Michalowski divides human societies into to broad historical categories: ‘acephalous’ (Greek word meaning headless) and ‘State’. Acephalous societies are considered to be earliest human aggregations ever recorded in history of human kind. Main characteristics of these societies were their diffuse structure, blood-related organization, and strong affiliation with group values (Michalowski, 1985). These societies were also the earliest kinds of human community that was there for some 30,000 years. Arthur Hartmann asserts that acephalous societies can be differentiated between nomadic tribes and segmental societies. They were small in size, economically cooperative, and comparatively egalitarian (Hartmann, 1995). Rene Kuppe states major attributes of acephalous societies: â€Å"a close relationship between these societies and their lebensraum, a lack of organization as state and social stratification, and the dealing with conflicts within a society th at is not based on institutional force by the state†(Kuppe,1990,p.10). Michalowski asserts that these societies laid pressure on potential deviants through promoting collective responsibility and group emotions that in turn